Contents
- What is figure skating?
- The disciplines
- Format of a competition
- The jumps
- Spins and step sequences
- Spins explained in more detail
- Equipment in detail
- Competitions and season
- History
- Figure skating in Germany
- Curious and little known
- Common terms explained briefly
- Getting started and costs
- Compulsory figures: the forgotten figures
- Training and everyday life in competitive sport
- Minimum age and protecting young athletes
- Figure skating in Germany, Austria and Switzerland
- Records and milestones
- Figure skating and ice shows
- More curiosities
- How to watch figure skating like an expert
- Nutrition in figure skating
- Figure skating: all encyclopedia entries
- Zahlen, Einstieg & FAQ
- Ligen & Wettbewerbe
- Disciplines
- Associations
- Sources
Profile
Figure skating
- Governing body
- International Skating Union (ISU), founded 1892
- Germany
- Deutsche Eislauf-Union (DEU)
- Olympic since
- 1908 (London), ice dance since 1976
- Disciplines
- Singles, pairs, ice dance, synchro
- Programs
- Short program + free skate
- Scoring
- ISU Judging System (since 2004)
What is figure skating?
Figure skating is one of the oldest and best-known winter sports. Athletes present a program of jumps, spins, step sequences and, depending on the discipline, lifts or throw jumps to music. Both technical difficulty and execution and the artistic components such as choreography, interpretation of the music and skating quality are scored.
Hardly any sport demands such a rare combination of jumping power, body tension, balance and expression. On quad jumps, top skaters rotate four times around their own axis in well under a second.
The disciplines
- Singles (women and men): jumps, spins and step sequences are the focus.
- [Pair skating](/lexikon/figure-skating/pair-skating): a woman and a man skate together, with lifts, throw jumps, death spirals and side-by-side jumps.
- [Ice dance](/lexikon/figure-skating/ice-dance): a dance couple focusing on step sequences, rhythm and musicality, without big jumps.
- [Synchronized skating](/lexikon/figure-skating/synchronized-skating): teams of 16 skaters skate in sync in formations.
- Team event: Olympic since 2014; nations collect points across all disciplines.
Format of a competition
In singles and pairs, a competition consists of two segments:
- Short program: shorter, with strictly prescribed elements.
- Free skate (free skating): longer, with more freedom in putting together the elements.
In ice dance the two segments are called the rhythm dance and the free dance. The points from both segments are added together, and the highest total score wins. Exactly how it is calculated is explained in figure skating judging system.
The jumps
There are six basic jumps, which differ mainly in their take-off: toe loop, Salchow, loop, flip, Lutz and Axel. The Axel is the only one with a forward take-off and therefore has half a rotation more. All the details, how to recognise them on TV and which records exist, are in figure skating jumps.
Spins and step sequences
Spins are rotated on one foot around the skater's own axis, in three basic positions: upright, sit and camel spin. Variations such as the Biellmann spin, in which the skater holds her skate behind her head, are particularly spectacular. Step sequences use the whole ice surface and show edge control, turns and musicality.
Spins explained in more detail
Besides jumps, spins are the second major element. Rotation speed, centring (the spin should stay in one spot), position changes and the number of rotations in a position are scored. Difficulty features such as a change of foot, a jump into the spin (flying spin) or difficult variations raise the level from base to level 4.
- Upright spin: upright on one leg, often with the free leg pulled up.
- Sit spin: deep in a squat, with the free leg stretched forward.
- Camel spin: upper body and free leg parallel to the ice.
- Biellmann: the free leg is grabbed behind the head by the hand, named after Switzerland's Denise Biellmann.
Equipment in detail
Figure skating boots are considerably higher and stiffer than recreational skates and support the ankle on landings. The blade is slightly curved (the "radius") and has a hollow-ground groove in the middle, creating two edges: inside and outside. Almost all figure skating elements are based on deliberately skating on one of these edges. At the front is the toe pick, which is planted in the ice for the toe loop, flip and Lutz.
Professionals have their boots and blades fitted individually and sharpened regularly. There are affordable beginner models for children, but rental skates from public skating are not suitable for jumps.
Competitions and season
The international season runs from autumn to spring:
- ISU Grand Prix: six events in autumn; the top six in each discipline qualify for the Grand Prix Final.
- European Championships (for European nations) and Four Continents Championships (Americas, Asia, Africa, Oceania) in winter.
- World Championships in March as the season highlight.
- Olympic Games every four years.
For young skaters there is a separate Junior Grand Prix series and World Junior Championships. In Germany, national championships are held every year, along with regional championships and numerous club competitions.
History
Skating on blades has been known for centuries, especially in the Netherlands. American Jackson Haines is considered the father of modern figure skating: in the mid-19th century he brought dance and music onto the ice and had great influence in Vienna.
The International Skating Union (ISU) was founded in Scheveningen in 1892. Figure skating was already Olympic in London in 1908, before the Winter Games were introduced in 1924. Ice dance joined the Olympic programme in 1976. Until 1990, compulsory figures were also part of competition: skaters traced precise curves and figure eights into the ice, which the judges then inspected. The name "figure skating" is a reminder of this to this day.
After the judging scandal at the 2002 Olympic Games in Salt Lake City, the ISU replaced the old 6.0 marking scale with today's points-based ISU Judging System.
Figure skating in Germany
The governing body is the Deutsche Eislauf-Union (DEU). Germany has a long figure skating tradition, with Olympic and world titles in singles and especially in pair skating. Among the best-known names are Katarina Witt (Olympic champion in 1984 and 1988) and, in pair skating, Aliona Savchenko and Bruno Massot (Olympic champions in 2018).
Curious and little known
- Why "figure" skating? The name dates from the era of compulsory figures, when skaters traced elaborate figures into the ice. The German "Eiskunstlauf" ("art skating") refers to the same artistry.
- Anticlockwise and clockwise rotators: most skaters rotate anticlockwise. Clockwise rotators are rarer and perform all jumps mirrored.
- Costumes: the rules require costumes to be "appropriate". If skaters lose parts of their costume during the program, such as feathers or beads, there is a deduction.
- Music with vocals: only since the 2014/15 season has music with vocals been allowed in all disciplines. Before that it was banned except in ice dance.
- Ice time is scarce: because rinks are also needed for ice hockey and public skating, many skaters train very early in the morning or late in the evening.
Common terms explained briefly
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Edge | Inside or outside edge of the blade, the basis of all elements |
| Toe pick | Serrated tip at the front of the blade |
| Combination | Two or three jumps directly one after another |
| Level | Difficulty level of spins and steps (base to 4) |
| GOE | Execution score, see judging system |
| Kiss and cry | Area where skaters wait for their scores |
| Choreographic sequence | Free, expressive part of the free skate without set steps |
Getting started and costs
Many clubs offer skating schools for children from about four years old, often structured by proficiency badges. Adults can join recreational or adult groups. What matters is a well-fitting figure skate with a serrated tip, the toe pick, which is needed for take-offs such as the toe loop. Ice time in rinks is the biggest cost factor.
You can find clubs and groups near you under teams & clubs. Why the ice for figure skating can be a little warmer and softer than for ice hockey is explained in making ice & ice temperature.
Compulsory figures: the forgotten figures
The name figure skating goes back to compulsory figures. Skaters had to trace prescribed figures such as eights and loops precisely on the ice several times. The judges then bent over the tracings and assessed how exactly they lay on top of each other. For a long time, compulsory figures made up a large part of the overall score. Because they were barely visible to spectators and television, their share was gradually reduced. Compulsory figures were finally abolished at international ISU competitions in 1990. Since then, singles competitions have consisted of the short program and free skate.
Training and everyday life in competitive sport
Figure skating is an early-specialisation sport. Many future top skaters are on the ice before they start school. Training does not only happen on the ice: jumps are first practised off-ice on the floor, often with spinning devices or on the pole harness, a harness on a line with which the coach secures the athlete on new jumps. Ballet, strength training and endurance work are added. Programs are designed by choreographers and usually rehearsed for a whole season.
Because ice time is expensive, young skaters often train very early in the morning or late in the evening, when rinks are not needed for public skating or ice hockey. Performance centres bring together coaches, ice time and school.
Minimum age and protecting young athletes
For a long time, very young skaters dominated women's singles. The ISU therefore decided to raise the minimum age for senior competitions gradually to 17 years. The rule has applied in full since the 2024/25 season. The aim is to protect young athletes from premature performance pressure and enable longer careers.
Figure skating in Germany, Austria and Switzerland
Figure skating has a long tradition in the German-speaking region. Some defining names and events:
- Germany: Katarina Witt won Olympic gold in singles for East Germany in 1984 and 1988. Aliona Savchenko and Bruno Massot won gold in pair skating in Pyeongchang in 2018. The national federation is the Deutsche Eislauf-Union (DEU).
- Austria: Emmerich Danzer became world champion three times in the 1960s. Vienna was a centre of skating in the 19th and early 20th centuries and hosted several World Championships.
- Switzerland: Denise Biellmann became world champion in 1981. The Biellmann spin, in which the blade is pulled over the head, is named after her. Stéphane Lambiel won two world titles and Olympic silver in 2006.
A fixture on the international calendar is the Nebelhorn Trophy in Oberstdorf, one of the most traditional competitions in autumn. Oberstdorf is also an important national training centre.
Records and milestones
The sport is developing rapidly in technical terms. In men's skating, quads have long been standard at the top level. In 2022, American Ilia Malinin became the first skater to land a quad Axel in competition – the hardest jump, because it requires four and a half rotations. Among women, triple Axels and quads are rare but do occur. Which jumps exist and how to tell them apart is explained in jump types. How they are scored is covered in judging system.
Figure skating and ice shows
Besides competition, figure skating has a long show tradition. Revues such as "Holiday on Ice" have toured Europe for decades and offer many former competitive skaters a second career. Shows allow elements that are banned in competition, such as the backflip. It was long penalised with a deduction at ISU competitions. Only from the 2024/25 season is it no longer banned in competition.
More curiosities
- Figure skating was already Olympic in London in 1908, long before the first Winter Games in 1924.
- The jump name Salchow goes back to Swede Ulrich Salchow, the name Axel to Norwegian Axel Paulsen.
- A figure skate has a toe pick at the front, which skaters use to push off on toe jumps. Ice hockey and speed skating blades don't have one.
How to watch figure skating like an expert
Whether watching on TV or at the rink, a few pointers let you see much more:
- Watch the take-off: if the skater takes off from an edge without the toe pick, it is an edge jump such as the Axel, Salchow or loop. If they pick into the ice, it is a toe jump such as the toe loop, flip or Lutz.
- Check the landing: a clean landing is backwards on one foot, with flow. A wobble, a hand on the ice or a second foot cost points in the execution score.
- Second half of the program: jumps performed late in the program earn a bonus at some competitions. Whether and how depends on the current rules. Strong skaters therefore save demanding elements for the end.
- Between the elements: the program components reward footwork, interpretation of the music and transitions. A program consisting only of approach and jump looks empty and is scored accordingly.
After each performance, athletes wait for their marks in the kiss and cry area. The name comes from the emotions regularly seen there.
Nutrition in figure skating
Long training days, high-impact jumps and an aesthetic focus on the body make adequate energy supply particularly important in figure skating. What skaters can eat before training and competition, how to recognise a long-term energy deficit (REDs) and where to get help is covered in the article nutrition in figure skating.
Figure skating: all encyclopedia entries
Axel (figure skating jump)
The Axel is the only figure skating jump with a forward take-off. That is why it always has half a rotation more than its name suggests: a triple Axel has three and a half rotations. It is considered the hardest of the six standard jumps.
European Figure Skating Championships
The European Figure Skating Championships are the oldest competition on the ISU calendar. The first Europeans took place in Hamburg in 1891. Today they are usually held in January and are the most important title event for European skaters before the World Championships.
Figure skating judging system (IJS, GOE, PCS)
Since 2004, figure skating has been scored under the ISU Judging System (IJS). The total score is made up of the technical score (base value of the elements plus the GOE execution score) and the program components, minus any deductions, for example for falls.
Figure skating jumps: Axel, Lutz, flip & co.
Figure skating has six basic jumps: toe loop, Salchow, loop, flip, Lutz and Axel. They differ in the take-off – whether with the help of the toe pick (toe jump) or from the edge (edge jump). The landing is almost always backwards on the right foot (for anticlockwise rotators).
Flip (figure skating jump)
The flip is a toe jump in figure skating. The skater takes off from the back inside edge of the left foot and picks into the ice with the toe pick of the right skate. It resembles the Lutz but is jumped from the other edge.
Free skate in figure skating
The free skate is the second and longer part of a figure skating competition. For seniors it lasts about four minutes. Skaters have more freedom in choosing elements than in the short program, but must observe maximum numbers and rules.
GOE (Grade of Execution)
GOE stands for Grade of Execution, the execution score in figure skating. Judges use it to score every element on a scale from −5 to +5. The GOE changes an element's base value up or down by a percentage.
Ice dance
Ice dance is an Olympic figure skating discipline in which a couple performs mainly step sequences, dance holds, twizzles and short lifts to music. Unlike pair skating, there are no throw jumps and no multi-rotation jumps.
ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating
The ISU Grand Prix is a series of six international figure skating competitions in autumn. The top six in each discipline qualify for the Grand Prix Final in December. The series has existed since 1995.
ISU Junior Grand Prix
The ISU Junior Grand Prix is the international competition series for young figure skaters. It has been held since 1997, usually from August to October at several stops. The best juniors qualify for the final.
Loop (Rittberger)
The loop, known in German as the Rittberger, is an edge jump in figure skating. Take-off and landing are on the same foot, the right back outside edge. In German-speaking countries it is named after Berliner Werner Rittberger, who invented it in the early 20th century.
Lutz (figure skating jump)
The Lutz is a toe jump in figure skating that takes off from the back outside edge. Because the approach curves one way and the rotation goes the other, it is considered the hardest standard jump after the Axel. It is named after Alois Lutz from Vienna.
Pair skating
Pair skating is an Olympic figure skating discipline for one woman and one man. Typical are spectacular elements such as overhead lifts, throw jumps, twist lifts and the death spiral, plus single jumps performed in sync.
Salchow (figure skating jump)
The Salchow is an edge jump in figure skating. The skater takes off from the back inside edge of the left foot, helped by the swing of the right leg, and lands backwards on the right foot. It is named after Swede Ulrich Salchow.
Short program in figure skating
The short program is the first segment of a singles or pairs figure skating competition. For seniors it lasts around two and a half minutes and contains a fixed number of required elements. Only the best skaters then qualify for the free skate.
Synchronized skating
Synchronized skating is a team discipline of figure skating: 16 skaters perform precisely synchronised formations such as block, circle, line and wheel to music. The ISU has held world championships since 2000; the discipline is not yet Olympic.
Toe loop (figure skating jump)
The toe loop is a toe jump in figure skating. The skater glides backwards on the right outside edge, picks in with the toe pick of the left skate and lands on the right foot again. It is considered the easiest jump and is the most common second jump in combinations.
World Figure Skating Championships
The World Figure Skating Championships are the most important annual figure skating competition. They have been held since 1896 and usually take place in March. Titles are awarded in men's and women's singles, pair skating and ice dance.
Zahlen, Einstieg & FAQ
Editorial status October 2026 · all figures with source and survey year
Figures & popularity
| Region | Players / members | Clubs / associations | Spectators / fans |
|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 20,053[1]National skating federation (DEU), around 87% female | 165[1] | no reliable figures |
| Austria | 5,420[2] | 68[2] | no reliable figures |
| Switzerland | 10,848[3]Swiss Ice Skating, all skating disciplines | no reliable figures | no reliable figures |
| Europe | no reliable figures | no reliable figures | no reliable figures |
| Worldwide | no reliable figures | 101 associations[4]ISU member associations (figure skating and speed skating) | no reliable figures |
In Germany, figure skating is very much a sport for girls and women: according to the DOSB, around 87% of members are female and more than half are under 19. There are no reliable figures for attendance or for recreational skaters at public rinks.
Associations & leagues
- Germany
- German Skating Union (DEU) · Regional ice sports associations
- Austria
- Austrian Figure Skating Association
- Switzerland
- Swiss Ice Skating
- Europe & world
- International Skating Union (ISU) · Grand Prix of Figure Skating · European and World Championships
Professional, amateur or recreational?
Competitive figure skating means daily training from childhood, usually at national and regional training centres. Only a few top skaters can make a living from it, for example through sports funding or ice shows. The vast majority skate recreationally at clubs, plus adults in adult categories and countless recreational skaters at public sessions.
Einstieg: Wie fange ich an?
- So geht's los
- Get started through skating schools and beginner courses at clubs or rinks. If you enjoy it, you move into club groups and take skills tests.
- Kosten
- Costs come from course or club fees, ice time and skates; at competitive level, coaching lessons, costumes and competition travel are added. There are no reliable averages.
- Ausrüstung
- Figure skates with toe picks on the blade, warm flexible clothing, gloves; a helmet for children at first.
- Alter
- Many start at 4 to 6 years old, but there are also beginner courses for teenagers and adults.
Frequently asked questions about Figure skating
How is figure skating judged?
With the ISU judging system: each element has a base value, its execution is rated with positive or negative grades, and points are added for the program components.
What jumps are there?
The six standard jumps are the Axel, Lutz, flip, loop, Salchow and toe loop. The Axel is the only jump that takes off forwards.
How many people figure skate in Germany?
According to the DOSB 2025 membership survey, the national skating federation had 20,053 members in 165 clubs.
At what age can you start?
Children usually from 4 to 6 years; many clubs and rinks also offer courses for teenagers and adults.
What is the difference between ice dance and pair skating?
Pair skating includes jumps, throws and overhead lifts; ice dance focuses on step sequences, rhythm and dance lifts without throws.
Since when has figure skating been Olympic?
Since 1908 at the Summer Games in London, and since 1924 at the Winter Games.
What is synchronized skating?
Formation skating in teams of 16 skaters. It is recognised by the ISU but is not Olympic.
Ligen & Wettbewerbe
ISU World Figure Skating Championships
The ISU names the World Championships as the season peak in figure skating. Individual host events are not separate knowledge competitions.
ISU European Figure Skating Championships
The ISU runs European Championships in figure skating as their own championship competition.
ISU Grand Prix
The ISU Grand Prix is the international Grand Prix series in figure skating, not one meet.
ISU Junior Grand Prix
The ISU Junior Grand Prix is the junior series in figure skating. Individual stops belong in the calendar.
Disciplines
Singles
Figure skating discipline for one skater.
Pair Skating
Figure skating discipline for a pair.
Ice Dance
Figure skating discipline built around pattern and free dances.
Synchronized Skating
Figure skating discipline for a team.
Associations
International Skating UnionISU
The ISU is the international federation for figure skating, speed skating and short track. It runs world championships, the Grand Prix and the international cup and tour series.
Sources & further links
- International Skating Union (ISU)
- ISU Special Regulations & Technical Rules
- Deutsche Eislauf-Union (DEU)
- Wikipedia: Eiskunstlauf
- Wikipedia: Pflicht (Eiskunstlauf)
- Wikipedia: Nebelhorn Trophy
- Wikipedia: Ilia Malinin
Editorially researched and checked against association and rulebook information. Found a mistake? Write to us via the Contact page.
Read more in the encyclopedia
Background
Making ice & ice temperature by sport
Artificial ice is made by applying water in many thin layers to a chilled concrete slab containing cooling pipes. The finished ice is usually only a few centimetres thick. The ice is tempered differently depending on the sport: colder and harder for ice hockey and speed skating, slightly warmer and softer for figure skating.
Background
Natural ice vs. artificial ice
Natural ice forms through frost without technology, for example on lakes or flooded areas. Artificial ice is produced by refrigeration plants that cool pipes beneath the ice surface. Artificial ice is predictable and even; natural ice depends on the weather but offers special experiences.